Reception Theory

Stuart Hall believed that media appeared to reflect reality, but in fact, were constructing it. He argued that media is not passively accepted by audience. It is not that simple. Viewers interpret media based upon their background, cultural history and life experiences.

PASSIVE audiences are docile, ‘nodding along’ and accepting the message of media, as per the Hypodermic Needle Theory. ACTIVE audiences get involved with media, engaging with the text and developing criticisms.

The meaning of a text is not inherent or naturally built-in to a text. It is created by a relationship between the media and the viewer – a new meaning is generated for every viewer. We all see things through the prism of our own selves. Hall theorised that there are three ways we may interpret a text. Our social situations will lead us to adopt different stances. There is more than one way to see a media text. How you interpret it may depend on your circumstances.

To give an author/text one meaning is ridiculous, it imposes a limit upon that text. It is never Univocal. There is not just one voice, one meaning.

The three ways of interpreting a text that Hall proposed are:

Preferred/Dominant Meaning: The interpretation the producers hope and attempt to get audiences to accept. This interpretation means audiences agree with the preferred meaning . In such a stance the code seems ‘natural’ and ‘transparent’. These readings are produced by those whose social situations are suited for it, and who agree with the ideology presented within the film.

Opposing Reading: An interpretation that conflicts with the preferred reading the producers attempted to create. Often created when a viewer’s social situation conflicts with the ideology presented within a media text. Viewers who have an opposed view will reject the ideology of a media text outright.

Negotiated Reading: When a viewer has mixed feelings about a media text, they are considered to have taken a negotiated reading. They may agree with certain aspects of the preferred reading, while disagreeing with, or substituting others. These readings are often contradictory or conflicting in nature, and much more complex than the more straightforward opposed and preferred readings.

P2 – Production Contexts Comparison – Alien vs Prometheus

For this comparison – I have chosen a pair of films from separate decades with similar themes – Alien (1979) and Prometheus (2012) – a pair of films that are set in the same universe, and directed by the same man, Sir Ridley Scott (also responsible for Black Hawk Down, Blade Runner and Gladiator). However, the films were made 33 years apart, and they are very different pieces of work. By understanding the unique production contexts of these two films, we can gain some understanding of why exactly they are so different.

 

Financing

Both films were funded and distributed by 20th Century Fox. Alien struggled with funding for several years before being greenlit, due to studios’ doubts about the financial viability of an expensive venture into serious science-fiction. However, in the aftermath of the release of the first Star Wars movie, 20th Century Fox decided to cash in on the sudden perceived opportunity for spectacular science-fiction films, and started accepting numerous scripts for review. The script for Alien, written by Dan O’Bannon and Ronald Shusettwas greenlit. Ridley Scott was signed up as Director, and based on his quickly-produced and very detailed storyboards, Fox agreed to set the film a budget of $8.4 million (approximately $27.5 million when adjusted for inflation today), which was double the initial budget given when the script was greenlit.

Prometheus began as a fifth sequel in the Alien franchise that was in development throughout most of the 2000’s, constantly being shelved so Fox could focus on the Alien vs Predator films, before it eventually began to take shape as the film that was released in cinemas. The project was revived in 2009, when Ridley showed renewed interest in the franchise. In 2010, the film finally entered production with a $120-130 million budget. Prometheus started production at the tail end of the late 2000’s global recession.

Even after adjusting for inflation, it is clear to see that Prometheus had a far larger budget than Alien, though they secured that funding in very much the same way – through the traditional processes used by the major American studios of script submission and pitches prior to being greenlit and assigned a budget. The size of budget no doubt has a hand in the differences between these two films. Prometheus‘ far larger budget allowed the film to have a much wider scope – with epic visuals and grandiose environments fully realised, rather than merely being hinted at, as was the case in Alien. This higher budget also allowed for a much larger cast to be hired – and the characters of Prometheus are far more numerous and often played by better-known actors than the characters of Alien were in 1979.

 

Technologies of Production

In 33 years, cinematic technology has changed a great deal. We have made the transition from film reels and practical effects to digital film and computer-generated imagery.

Alien was praised in its time for its visual style and incredible designs, but was limited by the technology of the time. Even animatronics were very basic and expensive in this period, and on such a small budget, Alien had to be creative with the techniques it could afford. Sets were constructed in full in large studios; the surface of LV-426, and all space scenes, were created using miniatures – and the titular monster was realised by placing a uniquely-tall-and-slender actor (Bolaji Badejo) within a fully-enclosing suit. The practical effects would have been very costly, and eaten up a great deal of the film’s budget. They also imposed limitations on what could be achieved on-camera. The alien costume was fragile, uncomfortable and unwieldy, not to mention limiting the vision of Bolaji Badejo (whose head was inside the creature’s neck) to the extreme. This forced the filmmakers to be very conservative with showing the creature in motion – and limited exactly what actions it could perform.

Prometheus, on the other hand, was afforded a very large budget – in a time where practical effects have an alternative/partner in CGI, and the technology of practical effects has made incredible advancements. Prometheus took advantage of new camera technologies – and the entire film was shot in 3D, allowing it to be exhibited in 3D theatres, to attract audiences with the promise of visual spectacle. The film could afford larger, more elaborate sets, with more spectacular CGI backdrops and setpieces than were possible for Alien to achieve with the technology available at the time. However, the new technology did not stop Scott’s crew from utilising traditional makeup and practical effects to create many of the sets, and a number of the creatures. There were in fact practical models of all inhumanoid creatures – and the Engineers and mutated Fifield were created primarily using actors in heavy makeup and costume.

Ultimately, however, the only real effect the advancement of technology has had on the two films – is that Prometheus had a far greater quantity of spectacular and awe-inspiring imagery than the claustrophobic and mysterious Alien could have ever hoped to have.

 

Trends in the Industry

As previously mentioned, Alien was greenlit not long after the incredible success of Star wars Episode IV: A New Hope. This fueled a small boom in larger-budget science-fiction films being produced by the major Hollywood studios. Recent film history included such success stories as the original Jaws (the first ever Blockbuster)and The Exorcist, both horror films which pushed the boundaries of the genre and what was acceptable in films in general. Another earlier film, which Scott acknowledged had a great deal of influence on Alien was the cult classic Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974), which was one of a number of 70s films that ushered in the ‘Slasher flicks’ of the 80s and 90s. The decade also saw the beginning of popular films with much darker themes in general, such as Apocalypse Now.

The success of the horror genre in this decade, not to mention darker and more adult films becoming more widely accepted undoubtedly paved the way for films such as Alien to come into existence. Alien was one of the last films to be released in the era of Hollywood known as the “New Wave”. The film was pitched to studios as ‘Jaws in Space’, promising visuals akin to those seen in Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), a rare serious and successful sci-fi film from the tail end of the previous decade. Alien took elements from a few other genres which had seen success in recent times, and blended them together to create the first truly-frightening sci-fi horror.

Prometheus came to our screens in 2012, over three decades after Scott’s original Alien. Just three years earlier, James Cameron’s (a good friend of Sir Ridley’s) Avatar (2009) pioneered new 3D technology to great success, expanding the horizons of visual spectacle that was possible to achieve in film at the time (where CGI had already reached incredible levels of realism). As the next decade began in 2010, suddenly dozens of films were being released in 3D, hoping to draw in audiences with the promise of stunning new visual capabilities. Prometheus was no different, and the film was shot entirely in 3D.

The most popular and successful films in recent years had been special-effects extravaganzas, such as Iron Man (2008), Inception(2010), and 2012 (2009). But there had not been a very successful (at least in the Box Office) serious futuristic sci-fi film since Avatar, which was not exactly a critical success in terms of its story and acting. While Prometheus certainly followed the trend for visual spectacle and heavy use of special effects, it perhaps had hoped to fill a gap in the market with regards to its particular genre and the themes it dealt with. While it did not make the top-10 highest-grossing films of 2012, it certainly stood out as a unique film with no real parallels in contemporary cinema at the time, and it would go on to attract a great deal of critical debate and discussion over its themes and plot.

 

Genres at the Time of Production

Alien went into production in the late 1970s, at a time when certain genres were popular material for filmmakers to craft their work onto, including spy films, and modern action films such as The Towering Inferno (1974). Westerns were quite popular at the time, with films such as Blazing Saddles and The Trial of Billy Jack being financially successful in 1974. Meanwhile, in 1973, The Exorcist had rekindled the horror genre, and was followed by such films as The Texas Chain Saw Massacre(1974) and Jaws (1975). 

Alien did not really belong to any of these popular genres – though it shared elements of its plot and themes with the horror genre – and in particular the early Slasher films such as Halloween. Scott has frequently stated that the narrative format of the early Slasher films – where characters are killed off one-by-one by a monstrous villain against which they have no defense but to run – inspired the plot of the second half of Alien. Indeed – in many ways Sigourney Weaver’s Ellen Ripley fits the ‘Final Girl’ archetype very well – though she was a particularly well-received example in terms of critical reaction.

Alien owes much of its success and current status as a cult classic to its uniqueness in cinema at the time it was released – the titular Alien (designed by surrealist painter H.R. Giger) was terrifying because nothing like it had ever been seen on film before.

When Prometheus went into production in 2010, cinema was beginning to see the meteoric rise of the superhero-movie genre, spurred by the immense success of The Dark Knight and Iron Man in 2008, not to mention the consistent yearly success of CGI animated films targeted at children, such as Wall-E (2008) and Toy Story 3 (2010).

Prometheus certainly was not a part of these popular genres, and arguably it set out to create something that was not seen in popular cinema at the time, by styling itself as a serious futuristic sci-fi with much more challenging and adult themes than Avatar, which was the last film of the genre to achieve major success. Perhaps Prometheus was hoping the relative scarcity of its genre, and the popularity of the last well-known entry into it would attract audiences.

 

Star Power and Representation

Alien is an interesting film in terms of its casting. There were of course big stars and popular actors in cinema at the time, but Alien did not feature any actors that could really be called ‘stars’. Of the cast, Ian Holm (who played the traitorous android Ash) was the most experienced actor, and Tom Skerritt (Captain Dallas)was perhaps the most recognisable to American audiences, but neither had many major roles under their belts, with Skerritt’s most well-known performance arguably being in MASH (1970) as Capt. ‘Duke’ Forrest. Interestingly, neither of these seasoned actors played the lead – the role of Warrant Officer Ripley went to Sigourney Weaver, who was an unknown in cinema (she had acted primarily on Broadway) at the time.

The cast were mostly older than was generally seen in thrillers  – with all but two of the ship’s crew being portrayed by actors over the age of 40. Critics praised this move as one that added to the realism of the film – the characters felt more believable as the ‘truckers in space’ they were meant to be.

In terms of representation – the cast was made up of only 7 characters (not including the Alien), 2 of whom were female; including the lead character, in a widely-praised move intended to help the film stand out in a time where cinema was dominated by strong male heroes. The cast also included a black man in African American actor Yaphett Kotto, who had seen success as a Bond villain in Live and Let Die (1973), and was brought in deliberately to add diversity to the crew. of the remaining 4 characters, 2 were white American males, and 2 were white British males, making for a fairly well-mixed cast, especially in a time where legislation regarding representation was virtually non-existent, and discrimination had only recently been made illegal in the UK (where Alien was filmed) by the Race Relations Act 1976.

The film was also notable for breaking the traditional thriller role of a powerful male character as the monster/villain. Unlike such characters as Michael Myers and Leatherface, the Alien was an androgynous being that blurred the lines of gender and sexuality in both its design and function – it was specifically designed to prey on sexual fears – in particular those of men, rather than having a male monster assaulting exclusively female characters, as was characteristic of horror films at the time.

Prometheus, in contrast, boasted a cast of much better-known actors in leading roles – and a more expansive cast overall. There were definite stars in film at the time – actors such as Christian Bale, fresh from his success with Nolan’s Batman films. The lead – archaeologist Elizabeth Shaw – was played by Noomi Rapace, who had earned herself notice with her part in the original film adaptations of The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo and its sequels. In supporting roles were Michael Fassbender as the android David, Idris Elba as Captain Janek, and Charlize Theron as Vickers. All three were more well-known to english-speaking audiences than Rapace, with Elba playing supporting roles in numerous films such as that of Heimdall in Thor (2011). Fassbender meanwhile was just beginning to gather steam, and had played the character of Magneto in X-Men: First Class (2011). Theron was probably the most famous actor of the group, though it’s debatable whether or not she was a ‘star’, she had been in a number of critical and financially successful films in the past decade, including the post-apocalyptic film The Road (2009) and superhero film Hancock (2008). In terms of the main cast and their fame, Prometheus had more ‘star power’ than Alien. However, it still contained no real ‘big name actors’, and the film was mostly marketed using Ridley Scott’s previous directing credits as an attraction for audiences.

In terms of representation – the cast was fairly multicultural, with actors and actresses from the USA, UK and in the case of Rapace, Sweden. The characters they portrayed were from less varied ethnic backgrounds – with almost all of the Prometheus crew being either British (though it was a mix of Scottish and English people) or American. There was a fairly even mix of male-and-female characters, with two of the strongest characters in the film (Shaw and Vickers) played by females. Race representation was not very high, with Elba the only black character – and with a less-than central role to the plot. There was one east-asian character (a co-pilot on the Prometheus), but he seems to have been there only to make the crew appear more diverse – the character has about three lines of dialogue in the entire movie. Arguably the cast was less representative along race lines than Alien was (especially given the much larger cast with only slightly-higher number of non-white members), though it gave a greater share of roles to female actors than Alien had done.

 

Regulatory Issues

Alien did not struggle with receiving uncut release at an ‘R’ rating in the USA, and an ‘X’ in the UK. However, FOX pushed for an AA rating (14 and over) for the film in the UK. Regulatory bodies were not swayed, however, and eventually Fox agreed to accept the X rating.

This was probably done to hype up the film and attract more viewers than the film might otherwise have done. An ‘X rating’ seemed a more authentic rating for a horror film, and Fox decided the higher rating would help it sell. For its time, Alien was quite a graphic film, with infamously gory scenes such as the birth of the ‘chestburster’ alien driving up the rating and generating some notoriety for the film among audiences. However, the level of profanity, sexual overtones and violence did not reach the levels of other films such as The Exorcist, which was released six years earlier. By this time, audiences were becoming less sensitive to these themes in films, and as such, Alien was able to pass into distribution with relative ease.

By 2012, audiences had become desensitised to gore, violence, strong language and sex in the movies. Prometheus had an actual sex scene, but it was fairly tame, and there wasn’t a great deal of profanity in the film by contemporary standards. There were some horrifically violent deaths and violent scenes (Fifield’s acid facial and Shaw’s self-administered abortion for example), but most of them were inflicted upon non-human characters, and therefore the impact for audiences was decreased.

Prometheus certainly contained disturbing content, but with films like Hostel and the Saw franchise pushing adult content in films to extremes, Prometheus seemed fairly tame. It received an R-rating in the USA, and was rated a 12A in the UK. Its content was not much more shocking than its distant predecessor, Alien, but due to a desensitisation of audiences, relaxation of regulations, and the fact that Prometheus was nowhere near as frightening as Alien (nor was it intended to be) contributed to a much lower age-rating for the film’s theatrical release.

P4 – Horror Films and Audiences

Active Spectatorship

The horror genres is filled with numerous subgenres – with different ways of inducing terror in audiences. Some do not encourage active spectatorship very much – and tend to be very straightforward affairs that make plain the meaning of their content. Slasher films (such as The Texas Chainsaw Massacre or Halloween) for example tend to be fairly basic affairs, without much thought-provoking material. They rely on shock value and jump-scares to frighten viewers. It is for this reason slashers tend to have a lower critical reputation, and are usually regarded as ‘cheap fun’ by the movie-going public.

Meanwhile, psychological horror films, such as Sixth Sense, or The Blair Witch Project rely on active spectatorship to produce the scares expected of the genre. This is because much of the terror within these films is implied or otherwise hinted at – rather than being openly displayed. This forces audiences to think about the meanings of the things they see, and reach the terrifying conclusions in their own minds. This plays off of the principle that the human imagination is a more powerful tool for creating fear than any physical or visual demonstration can be.

Horror films may rely almost entirely on active spectatorship to be successful, or they may seek to create passive audiences. There are many subgenres of horror, and no two films will fall in the same place on the spectrum of active vs passive spectatorship.

 

Pleasure

The horror genre is equally as capable of offering narcissistic and escapist pleasures to audiences, if the characters fit certain types, or the narrative and setting is well-crafted, but without a doubt the greatest pleasure people watch horror films for is a sort of personal challenge – they want to prove to themselves and others (it is quite common for groups to view horror films together) that they are not too scared to watch the film, and that they can withstand the horrors within. It is a challenge to expose one’s self to frightening sights and sounds without hiding or running away – an exercise of control over instincts. There is also the entertainment some will draw from seeing their companions who do not handle the terror as well as them react, in what could arguably be called a form of emotional schadenfreude.

This competitive and cathartic experience undoubtedly creates the primary draw of the horror genre for audiences.

 

Frameworks of Interpretation

Of course audiences are made up of individuals that interpret what they see in a host of different ways. Horror films are no exception, and there are many films that may be seen differently from different perspectives. For example, the Stanley Kubrick film The Shining has been variously considered to be a metaphor for the genocide of Native Americans, or simply a horror movie about a family trapped in a hotel, or a whole host of other things. It’s a complex film with many elements that can be interpreted in different ways – allowing audiences to form a wide array of conclusions as to what the film is really about, and this is far from the only horror film to allow such room for interpretation – Sixth Sense is another great example of a film that can be interpreted in numerous ways.

 

Media Literacy

The horror genre’s audiences are becoming known for their media literacy, thanks in no small part to films like Scream and Cabin in The Woods, which highlighted and analysed the conventions of the horror genre (and slasher films in particular). Horror films have had a tendency to be formulaic affairs, and as such many themes and conventions common across the genre are recognised and discussed at length by horror fans – such as the ‘Final Girl‘ phenomenon, where the last surviving character of many slasher flicks is usually a strong, competent female character who at the last minute defeats and (usually) kills the villain.

 

Intertextuality

While early on, the horror genre was not known for its intertextuality. In more recent decades, particularly with the growth of horror fandoms on the internet and the release of films like Scream and Cabin in the Woods, intertextuality has become a staple of the genre. Many horror films include posters and props and other items that reference older works (not always other horror films). Cabin in the Woods included monsters, locations and plot devices that referenced a whole host of horror films – from their own version of Hellraiser‘s Lament Configuration and Cenobite characters, to the ubiquitous Werewolf in reference to classic horror films such as the British Hammer Horror movies. This is mainly in aid of the film’s purpose as a huge deconstruction of the horror genre.

 

Effects

As a genre that often depicts supernatural events and extreme violence, often resulting in death, horror films have a long history of special effects. Most frequently used in this genre to create gory death scenes and other injuries (like the infamous Chestburster scene from Alien), but also used to create nightmarish creatures such as those featured in Prometheus, and supernatural phenomena such as the appearance of the titular entity in Poltergeist.

Of course, the methods and technology used to create these effects has advanced over the years, and where once complex and expensive practical effects were popular, such as the head-spinning scene from The Exorcist (which was made using a lifelike dummy replica of actress Linda Blair), we now see a much greater number of CGI effects, such as many of the monsters unleashed in the climax of Cabin in The Woods (including a giant snake, and a huge bat-like monster). A good contrast can be observed in John Carpenter’s The Thing and its 2011 prequel. The same creatures are shown throughout the film, but the effects are created in very different ways. While the original was forced to use animatronics and puppetry to create many of the monstrous alien forms, the prequel made use of CGI and much more advanced contemporary makeup techniques to create its creatures.

 

Fandom

There are many film franchises within the horror genre that have attracted cult followings/fandoms. For example, the not-inconsiderable Alien vs Predator combined fan community, who have created fan films, fan art, web comics and some amusing fan fiction, to highlight but a few items. This is far from the only example of such fan-devotion in the horror genre, and the genre has dedicated conventions featuring appearances from many well-known actors and filmmakers who have contributed to the genre.

Horror is a genre that often leaves mysteries unexplored in the brief glimpses we are given into the settings of the films. It makes sense therefore, that fans would seek to expand that with their own work, and become captivated by the iconic figures of horror such as Dracula, Jason Voorhees or Jigsaw. They want to uncover the rest of the mystery.

 

Social Networking

There are groups within social networks dedicated to horror films. Horror films promote themselves just as much through social media as any other modern film genre does. There are even horror films now being released based upon the social media phenomenon and its inherent dangers.

 

Pre- and Post-Viewing Experiences

Large websites are dedicated to reporting, reviewing and discussing the horror genre. Fans of the genre and particular films from within it will write reviews, compare them to other films, discuss with other viewers on forums and websites like IMDb, and create their own fan works.

Pre-viewing, horror films might rely on being a new installment of an established series, such as Freddy vs Jason – which relied almost entirely on the fame and enduring iconic status of its titular characters, drawn from the Nightmare on Elm Street and Friday the 13th series’ respectively. These sequels to horror icons encourage fans to engage in re-watching of older installments of the series.Otherwise, fans engage with the genre as they would any other – visiting movie news sites and forums to discuss upcoming releases and catch the latest information that’s been unveiled.As previously discussed, the horror genre has a lot of potential to inspire cult followings and massive fandoms alike post-viewing. Horror is filled with iconic characters (usually the villains) which are known even by people who have never seen the films. In the Western world, most adults would associate a hockey mask with Friday 13th’s notorious villain Jason Voorhees, even if they have never actually watched a film from the series.Post-viewing, many horror films seem to have lasting appeal which keeps fans going back for more.Conditions of ReceptionThe format in which audiences view a horror film can arguably have a great deal of effect on the experience. Traditionally, these films were viewed collectively in theatres – a large darkened space, where your vision is dominated by the film’s projected image, and the sound booms through powerful speakers. But now there are many options for viewing films.While a theatrical viewing can be a frightening and immersive experience, home viewing via DVD/Blu-ray can allow different experiences. Either a relaxing viewing among friends, watching the film for reasons of nostalgia rather than catharsis, or a genuine attempt to recreate the terror of the cinematic experience, with no lights and surround sound. It’s also become quite common for people to watch home video formats alone on computers, spawning the idea of watching a film alone in the dark, with the sound on speakers, fully immersing a lone viewer in the experience.Online viewing is also becoming much more widespread today, and due to the interconnectivity of many technologies, online video allows independent films distributed on YouTube to be viewed on a HD screen with relative ease and no requirement for a custom DVD or VHS casette.

P4 Notes: 12/6/14 – Genres and Audiences

Active Spectatorship

What is the relationship between the film and the audience? How active/involved in the film is the audience? Is the audience of this genre ‘active’ or ‘passive’? E.g, rom-coms rarely tend to inspire fandoms, and people attending events centred around them long after the film’s release. Sci-fi and fantasy franchises tend to generate ‘active’ spectatorship from audiences.

Pleasure

How does the audience gain pleasure from the film? Do audiences gain pleasure from seeing a story/character audiences already loved come to life (e.g Lord of The Rings)? Is it narcissistic pleasure (placing themselves in the role of the main character)? Fantasy? Wish-fulfillment? Escapism (removal from reality)? Intellectual curiosity/challenge? Is it exciting/funny?

Frameworks of interpretation

Some genres/films may be interpreted differently, perhaps in many different ways. Why is a film like this? Can a film really only be interpreted one way? If so, why?

Media literacy

Media literacy is your level of competence in your ability to recognise, analyse, evaluate and create messages in a wide variety of media modes, genres and forms. Is the audience for a particular genre particularly media literate (in general)?  Does a genre rely on this?

Intertextuality

Does the genre refer to/borrow from other media? Are there intertextual references? If yes, why are they there?

Preferred readings

Effects

Does the genre use Visual Effects? How have they changed over the years? E.g the difference between Alien and Star Trek (2009), whose effects are created in very different ways.

Fandom

Fandoms are groups or subcultures dedicated to specific media franchises. A return to active engagement with culture that was present before the rise of mass media, thanks primarily to the advent of the internet/worldwide communication. It is becoming a force that challenges social norms and accepted behaviour. Fans tend to explore what is possible outside more mainstream scenarios.

Interactivity

How does the film genre interact with its audience? How do the fans interact with it? Fan works? Spoofs? Short films? Webshows?

Social-networking

How does a genre use social media, if at all? Does it use it to specifically interact with fans?

Pre- and post-viewing experiences

Do fans of the genre engage with films before they come out in any way? Forums, social media, fan art, reading articles, revisiting related work, etc. Does the genre inspire devotion in fans/audiences?

After seeing it, how do audiences react? Reviews, chat online, fandom, re-watching, posting online, forgetting the film, buying merchandise?

 

Conditions of reception

Does where the audience watches a film change the experience for them? Did they see it in the cinema? On DVD/Blu-ray? Online?

P3 – Publicity and Marketing – Guardians of the Galaxy

The film Guardians of the Galaxy is scheduled for theatrical release in August 2014. It is the latest addition to the interlinked series of superhero films being released by Marvel Studios, including the Iron Man, Hulk, Thor, Captain America and Avengers movies thus far. The producers are using a number of different tactics to appeal to audiences with the publicity and marketing for this film:

Advertising

Guardians of the Galaxy has advertised itself through various formats, including theatrical trailers shown in cinemas worldwide, directly reaching cinema-going audiences, and also appearing on Youtube in pre-video ads. The trailers are shown before movies with a similar target audience – primarily action films such as Godzilla (2014), or the earlier Marvel Studios release Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014). They have also released a series of five short character profile videos for the titular ‘Guardians’. They have also produced several posters distributed online and in theatres.

Reviewing

Following in the vein of other superhero-blockbusters released by Marvel, this film mostly aims to attract large audiences, though that does not necessarily preclude it from gaining critical acclaim, as several previous Marvel Studios films gained favourable reviews. As it has yet to be released, there are no reviews for the actual film itself, though trailers and marketing materials have been received well by various critics. And according to Rotten Tomatoes, the film is highly-anticipated by audiences.

Chat Shows

Cast and Crew of the film have yet to appear in many chat shows, it is likely appearances will increase as we draw closer to the film’s release. However, the Director James Gunn, one of the stars, Chris Pratt, and the President of Production for Marvel Studios, Kevin Feige were recently interviewed by AMC Movie News. This appearance was used to drum up interest among film-lovers, and give people a better understanding of what exactly Guardians of the Galaxy is about.

Product Tie-ins

As a Marvel Studios film, Guardians of the Galaxy is part of the larger Marvel Studios ‘cinematic universe’, and will tie in to previous and future Marvel films in various ways, as hinted at in the AMC Q&A. There are also recurring characters from other films, such as Benicio Del Toro, playing the role of The Collector (who previously appeared at the end of Thor 2: The Dark World), or the character of Thanos, who appeared in the after-credits scene of the Avengers. Guardians is also scheduled to have various forms of merchandise released, including theatre cup toppers, and action figures.

Premieres

The film is set to release on July 31st in several countries, with it arriving in American theatres on August 1st. Premiere screenings (and media coverage thereof) have yet to be announced.

Awards

The film is unlikely to achieve ‘serious’ acting or directing awards due to the subject matter and the history of science fiction and action films with major awards shows like the Oscars. However, it is unlikely that the producers are aiming for these type of awards, and instead it is likely that they will be aiming for technical awards, such as soundtrack and special effects. These are historically the type of awards films in these genres are likely to achieve. These will help audience appeal by spreading and reinforcing the idea that the film is a sensory spectacle – long the main draw of Hollywood Blockbusters anyway.

On-line Presence

As previously noted, the film has posted numerous advertising materials online, from trailers to posters to exclusive interviews. It has been a much-discussed topic on media websites such as MTV,  indiewire or scified. It is maintaining a strong online presence through frequent releases of still-frames from the film, new trailers, and interviews, which keep websites reporting on it. There is also a strong online comic-fan community who discuss and disseminate information on the film due to its links to the marvel comic series it is adapted from.

The film has its own official twitter account. It has posted numerous advertising materials for the film, and accrued over 72,000 followers. It also has a facebook page which has accrued over 500,000 likes.

 

Audience Research

The film is part of the wider Marvel Studios ‘cinematic universe’ and as such, follows on in many ways from previous films in this interconnected web of superhero movies. As such – the performance and audience reaction to previous films within the franchise would serve as excellent research material for the production of Guardians of the Galaxy.

The films are discussed on social media, video reviews are plastered all over YouTube, news sites and film review sites are filled with discussion on Marvel’s superhero films. There is an enormous plethora of information to gather and interpret surrounding audience reception of their films.

 

Producer Response to Research

Marvel Studios makes decisions on where they are taking their main superhero franchise next at the highest levels of the organization. Producers no doubt looked at which demographics their previous films had appealed to, why people thought that was, and so on. The result was Guardians of the Galaxy being greenlit. However, it seems much of the attitude towards making it was a desire to expand the franchise in a new direction (i.e. space), and the studio feeling willing to take the risk based on the enormous success of their other recent films.

On social media, the film has interacted with members of the public anticipating the film’s release, increasing hype for the film, as well as gauging interest in it from potential audiences.

 

Audience Targeting

Advertisement for the film has been primarily confined to cinemas and online – the best places to attract the built-in audience Marvel films have thanks to their decade-spanning comic books and, of course, the more recent interconnected cinematic universe’s huge success.

 

Distribution

The film is set to be shown at theatres worldwide – with numerous different companies in dozens of countries all providing at least limited screenings of the film after its release in August 2014.

Production Contexts Notes

When and where a film is made changes the film itself. Technology, culture and audiences all shift and change based on time/place. Films are created by a range of determinants and influences that impact their creation, such as:

Financing

How much finance was available to the filmmakers? Who funded it? A production studio? What did the financiers want in return? How did it get funded? Is there any difference between how the films I’ve selected were funded? Was there a recession going on at the time?

Technologies of production

How affordable was equipment at the time? Equipment is now becoming much cheaper. Can anyone now make a film? Can only film studios make a film?

Distribution and exhibition

How were the two chosen films from two different decades distributed and exhibited to their audiences? What was different? Distribution is about releasing and sustaining films in the market place.

‘Distribution is necessarily a collaborative process.
It requires the materials and rights of the producer and the cooperation of the exhibitor to promote and show the film in the best way possible.’ (BFI)

Where was a film exhibited? Netflix? Youtube? Theatres? Festivals?

Trends in the industry

What trends are prevalent in the industry at the time the film was produced? Did that influence the example films I’ve chosen? Were sequels popular at the time? Was a particular genre ‘in vogue’? Was a certain star particularly popular at the time? Trends are often factors that influence the production of films e.g ‘Vampires are so hot right now’

Genres at the time of production

Current trends are superhero films, 3D action films, ensemble comedies, apocalypse movies. When the chosen films were in production, what were the genres that were most popular? Why was that? Did that influence the chosen films? Why are all these genres so popular? What about them resonates with the audiences?

Star power and representation

What sort of power did the stars in the chosen films have? Were they the major selling point? Were they ‘owned’ by the studio? (In the Hollywood Studio System in the 40s stars were tied to 7 year contracts). What did the stars represent to their audience? Did they reflect their time period? What do they tell you about the time the film was made? Representation is key here.

Social issues at the time of production

Do the films deal with any of the social issues taking place at the time of their production? Crime? Prevalent subcultures? These things change vastly over time and location. In America films focusing on gang warfare (e.g Bloods and Cripps) are very different from street crime in British films (Chavs have been the most recent ‘popular’ subject).Was a war taking place? Political upheaval? Recession?

Culture and politics of the country where they are produced

‘The Class’ (Cantet, 2008) is a semi-autobiographical film about a teacher’s experiences in France with ‘problem children’. The film analyses and explores the cultural and political circumstances that created them.

Regulatory issues e.g BBFC

Have regulatory laws changed? What did the chosen films go through, and what could they get away with? Are films now more lenient in their depiction of sex, violence, gore, etc? Have people become desensitised? How have these issues effected the chosen films differently?

Synergies between films

Avengers is probably the greatest example. Lots of linked films, social media, TV shows, merchandise, etc. Synergy is becoming more and more common as time goes on – what was the culture regarding sequels and reboots at the time? What about adaptations? Was the film derived from a novel, or foreign/older movie? Why is there a trend for synergy?

Nature/structure of the industry which produces them
(Vertical/Horizontal integration)

In Hollywood and other forms of industrial cinema, the phases of production, distribution and exhibition operate most effectively when ‘vertically integrated’. This is when the three stages are seen as part of the same larger process, under the control of one company. From the early 1920s through the early 1950s, the US film industry had evolved into an industry controlled by a few companies – an ‘oligopoly’. Classic Hollywood was controlled by the fully integrated Big Five:

MGM
Warner Brothers
20th Century Fox
Paramount Pictures
and RKO

These studios not only produced and distributed their own films, but also operated their own movie theaters (exhibition).

Vertical integration was the focus of policy-makers for a long time because of the potential for anti-competitive behaviours. Laws are in place to make things fairer for producers outside of big studios.

Production Contexts – U26 P2

International co-productions

An international co-production is any film produced by mutiple companies from seperate countries working together on a production, usually between nations who have co-production treaties or agreements. Working together across national boundaries is often a method of receiving tax breaks and government funding in other nations, as well as pooling of resources between companies and ease of access to locations. However, it also allows companies with unique facilities or skills to combine forces, and of course there is the potential to expand the reach of a film into an entirely new market. Today, many films made outside the U.S are International Co-productions due to the approach’s numerous advantages.

International co-productions provide many practical advantages for filmmakers, but there are drawbacks to the approach. For starters, there will be increased costs related to co-ordination between the co-operating companies, more time and money spent dealing with the government, due to the international nature of the production. There will also be  a loss of control and ‘cultural specificity’, meaning the ability for a film to connect and be relevant to one particular culture. A film can cease to ‘feel’ like it comes from a particular place. Though some would argue this has the advantage of giving a film broader appeal, and therefore higher potential profitability. International co-productions will contain a number of different cultural influences, which can vary widely depending on which companies are involved, and how they specifically contribute to the production.

 

Independent Productions

Independent, or ‘indie’ films are professional productions completed mostly or entirely outside of the major film studio system. Usually they are produced and distributed through independent film companies, though major studios may produce or distribute independent films through subsidiary companies such as Fox Searchlight. Independent films are usually much lower budget than major studio productions, but as a result they are free from the interference of said studios, who will expect a level of control over productions they are funding.

Independent films are generally much closer to the filmmakers’ original artistic vision, as there are less financiers watching over their shoulders, trying to ensure maximum profitability. As a result, independent films are often willing to tackle more controversial subjects, and create films with more specific appeal. Major film studios have invested heavily in the indie film industry due to huge commercial success stories such as Blair Witch Project and Slumdog Millionaire, both of which generated profits far in excess of their budgets. Independent films are seen as more risky, due to their focus being primarily artistic, rather than mass appeal; but when they succeed, they can achieve serious popularity.

 

Developing Countries

A developing country or less-developed country is a nation with a low standard of living, underdeveloped industrial base, and low HDI (Human Development Index) when compared to other nations. Due to the relatively poor nature of such countries, they can afford to make very few films. As such, cinema from developing countries is very rare. What films they do produce often aim to draw the world’s attention to specific issues, usually ones of great relevance to the nation it was produced in.

With so few films able to be produced in developing countries, only the very best filmmakers have the opportunity to create films at all. Films in developing countries can often have great artistic vision, drawing heavily on the cultural history and social issues of the time. Ukraine in particular has produced many successful films, which have received critical acclaim at international film festivals, such as Ischov tramwai N°9, which won a silver bear at the Berlinale film festival.

 

Bollywood

Bollywood is a popular term referring to the Hindi-language film industry, based primarily in Mumbai, in India. It is one of the largest centres of film production on Earth, creating more films per year than anyone else, even Hollywood. It is formally referred to as Hindi cinema. Much like major Hollywood studios, Bollywood films aim to achieve mass appeal – their films try to have something for everybody to enjoy. Famously, most Bollywood films are musicals, with catchy song-and-dance routines worked into the script.

Bollywood plots are often very melodramatic, with star-crossed lovers, long-lost relatives and reversals of fortune being common themes, among others. The films tend to be long, filled with a variety of elements, from drama to comedy to musical numbers, and they usually have an intermission when shown in cinemas. They are known as masala films, which is the Hindi word for a mixture of spices. This extravaganza of entertainment is common practice in Bollywood, chiefly because Indian audiences (Bollywood’s primary market) consider quality entertainment as ‘good value for money’. More recently, Bollywood films have begun to reflect globalisation in India, becoming more similar to Western films, in particular those produced in Hollywood, particularly with regards to production values. This is in part due to the increasing distribution of big-budget Hollywood films in their target markets, which have cast older Bollywood films, with their relatively low production values, in a bad light.

 

British

The British film industry has been significant for more than a century. The golden age of British cinema is widely thought to have occurred in the 1940s, somewhat later than film production’s all-time high in 1936. Many British actors have achieved international acclaim, such as Michael Caine and Cate Winslet, and many of the most successful box office movies have been produced in the UK, including the Harry Potter and James Bond film series, together the highest-grossing film series of all time. British film production is often influenced by its attempts to compete with the American film industry, and many successful filmmakers and performers in the American film industry come from the UK, such as Ridley Scott and Charlie Chaplin.

Immediately  after World War 2, British cinema reached its greatest heights in terms of creativity. With films such as Oliver Twist, Great Expectations, and Laurence Olivier’s Hamlet (which was the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture) all being released in the late 1940s. From there onward, British film saw fluctuating popularity and commercial success. Generally, British films have received small to moderate funding, with few reaching budgets on the level of major Hollywood studio productions. British film production is well-known for its ability to achieve quality on a much lower budget than would be expected in the USA, particularly in the realm of visual effects, as exemplified in the Harry Potter films.

British and American film industries have strong links, with many professionals working between industries, but exclusively British productions tend to be distinct affairs, with gritty, less idealistic storylines being a common feature, often attributed to the hardships of wartime on the British nation establishing darker tones in UK cinema back in the 1940s – the golden age which has arguably defined the course British film would take from then on. Higher-end British cinema has a reputation as artistically powerful work, achieving critical acclaim and receiving awards at such prestigious events as the Academy Awards.

 

Hollywood

Hollywood has been the single greatest influence on cinema around the world since the 20th century. Hollywood history is divided into four main periods: the silent film era, classical Hollywood cinema, New Hollywood and the contemporary period. Hollywood films are overall the most expensive and widely-distributed in the world. Hollywood cinema is primarily targeted at American audiences. However, with such large budgets, Hollywood films are generally spectacular affairs, which are rarely matched by films produced outside of Hollywood’s influence.Since the 1920s, the American film industry has grossed more than any other country. And today, it is still the third largest producer of films (in terms of number of films produced) on Earth.

Hollywood has focused on spectacle and visually impressing the viewer since the 1970s, with the Hollywood Blockbuster becoming a well-known term for big-budget, mass-appeal films aimed at raking in as much money as possible. However, Hollywood cinema was not always like this. In the silent film era, films of course had no dialogue, and relied on title cards, gestures and mime to communicate what dialogue now does in modern film. Early on, many performers came from the stage, and acting was performed in a exaggerated style more suited for the stage, where often the audience were very distant from the action, so initial silent films were often very campy affairs, but by the early 1920s, more realistic, subtle acting had become much more commonplace. These films were also black-and-white, so film tinting was used to indicate certain moods or times of day.  The advent of synchronised sound led to the end of this era of cinema, and of many silent film actors’ careers – as they could not remember lines, or their voices were considered unsuitable by filmmakers.

From the 1920s to the 1960s – the era of classical Hollywood –  film was constantly produced at an incredible rate, to provide the major studios (who at this time owned large chains of theatres) with new material for exhibition all year round. Many people argue this led to some excellent pieces of cinematic work, including Orson welles’ Citizen Kane This was because, with so many films being produced, it was not required for every single one to be a major success. The major studios could afford to gamble on smaller-budget productions with unknown actors. This era produced many of the most enduring and critically-acclaimed films in the history of American cinema.

In the 1950s, the beginning of ‘New Hollywood’, post-classical cinema had reached America. Because certain expectations had been engendered in the minds of audiences by the often very formulaic films of the classical era, this new movement sought to surprise audiences with twist endings, and the lines between protagonist and antagonist being blurred. Films of this era became more focused on realism, which became easier as the MPAA rating system now allowed for films to be made for more mature audiences, and location shooting was becoming more feasible for production studios. Early in the 70s, Hollywood films were often both critically acclaimed and financially successful. But later, the arrival of films such as Jaws and Star Wars ushered in the idea of the modern blockbuster; encouraging studios to focus more on creating big hits.

This led into the contemporary period of Hollywood cinema, starting in the 1980s and running through to present day. In the wake of hugely successful productions of the 1970s, Hollywood was galvanised to try and create more blockbuster, smash-hit films. Studios today rely on a smaller number of hugely expensive productions per year to keep them profitable, relying on star power of the actors and directors attached to them to attract audiences. A successful blockbuster will make back its budget and then reap a considerable profit on top of that. However, these are very risky undertakings, and if they under-perform, they can cost a studio many millions. Blockbusters are generally considered to have (or aim for) wide appeal, and generally lower age ratings to reach more viewers. many critics point out, however, that the artistic vision is limited in such films, and they tend to be very shallow as a result of the need for them to appeal to large audiences.

Theories – Queer Theory

Queer is defined as anything outside of the hetero-normative view of life.

The hetero-normative manner of life can no longer be called ‘normal’. We all see things through different eyes despite most contemporary film showing us a hetero ‘male gaze’ perspective of the world.

Theories of anti-racism, feminism, and post-colonialism have established that humans are not all of one ideal type. Desire and sexuality have become as central as race, gender, or class. Homophobia has taken up a similar status as racism or class hatred, and is an ugly thing in society now.

Queer theory analyses the categories (e.g: straight/gay/bi etc) Our prejudices are exposed and replaced with a new sexual and social perspective that goes beyond hetero/homo duality. Queer theory celebrates social difference. It analyses the dichotomy of hetero/homo simplification.

Queer theory attempts to rethink categories and strategies of identity, aiming to shift the focus away from minority groups. Queer theory looks at identity at the cultural level by analysing the hetero/homosexual binary opposition.

Theories – Psychoanalysis

“Analysis of the psyche”

Sigmund Freud is considered the ‘father’ of this theory. Looked into the unconscious of the individual’s inner life/psyche. Freud sought a cure for ‘neurotic illness’ by analysing individuals and helping us learn through self-knowledge. Freud believed the human mind was like an iceberg – only the very tip was projected on the outside, openly visible to those around us. The rest of the psyche was hidden from others, and far, far larger and more complex, unbeknownst even to us, controlling our every act.

Freud believed in ‘drives’ at an instinctual level that dictate most of what we do consciously. What we want/need/desire is different to what we show the world.

There were two primary drives suggested by Freud:

Life drive – Eros
(sex/enjoyment/excitement/survival/creativity)

Death drive – Thanatos
(self-destructive/revisiting trauma/repetition/hate/aggression/guilt/return to inorganic)

Freud looked at the Unconscious (dreams, sexual abnormalities, neurological pathologies). Sometimes these break through the facade of the Conscious everyday normality. Though we can repress thoughts and frustrations, freud believed they would always return.

Repression – an attempt to repel our own desires and impulses toward pleasurable instincts by excluding them from our consciousness and holding or subduing it in our subconscious.

“Unfortunately, repressed emotions do not die. They are silenced. But they continue to affect the person.” – Sigmund Freud.

Film is an art form that can express the unconscious desires of humanity. The Transference/Projection theory postulates that we displace/project onto films the feelings derived from the experiences and fantasies of our childhood. Projection is an unconscious redirection of feelings from one thing to another.

In his later work, freud broke the human psyche down into three components:

The ID
The childlike aspect of a personality. Interested in instant gratification. Impulsive.

The EGO
Organised, realistic aspect. mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego. balanced, pragmatic.

The SUPER-EGO
Parental, critical aspect. Morality is a strong part of this component.

Look at dormant meanings. What is hidden behind the overt?

Psychoanalytical film theory stresses a subject’s longing for completeness which the film may appear to offer through identification with an image. Jacque Lacan theorized that identification with an image is no more than an illusion.

Trauma in cinematic representation has come to the fore in recent decades. Lacan argued that films offer us interesting ways to speak of our issues rather than definitive answers or conclusive self-knowledge.

Theories – Marxism

The philosophy of Karl Marx states that the concept of class struggle plays a central role in our lives. Marx believed one day society would inevitably develop from the oppression of the poor under capitalism to a socialist and ultimately classless society.

He argued that the history of society is the history of class struggle:

– Freeman V Slave

– Patrician V Plebeian

– Lord V Serf

– Oppressor V Oppressed

– Bourgeisie V Proletariat

– Upper/Middle-Class V Working Class

Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of means of production. The goal is always to make a profit. It means that investment in and ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange of wealth is made and maintained chiefly by private individuals or corporations. The ‘big guys’ own the means of wealth. The rest of society work to get a tiny fraction of that wealth.

In Capitalism the struggle is between Owners of means of production and the workers who sell their labour. Why don’t the workers just rise up and change things? Marx believed capitalism kept the workers calm and docile. He called this process consumerism.

Anti-consumerist messages and Marxist ideas are present in many films, despite being created primarily in capitalist nations. However, many more will push exceptionally capitalist messages. Marxist film theory is one of the oldest forms of film theory.

Sergei Eisenstein and many other Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s expressed ideas of Marxism through film.

Russian filmmakers complained that narrative structures of film in Hollywood pushed capitalist ideas.